From Inalienable Possessions to Magic: Social Practices Behind the Diversity of Chalcolithic Symbol-laden Objects
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.21301/eap.v20i2.10Keywords:
inalienable possessions, prehistory, magic, Chalcolithic, southern LevantAbstract
There is a great variety of symbol-laden objects in the late Chalcolithic period (ca. 4300-3900 BC). In the past, they have been interpreted mostly as designators of social status and evidence of social hierarchy. The present paper discusses this heterogeneity and the use of symbol-laden objects through the concept of inalienable possessions defined by Annette Weiner. The symbolism of these objects makes them socially valuable. It dictates their use as a means of communication, which is frequently ritual or ceremonial (or both), while restricting them from being exchanged for economic gain. In the case of the Chalcolithic period, the heterogeneity of such objects, on the one hand in terms of their materiality, production, and design, and on the other as related to the context from which they have been retrieved, points to their prominent use in household ritual practices best described as magical.
Downloads
References
Ackerfeld, Dana, Yael Abadi-Reiss, Omri Yagel, Yehudit Harlavan, Talia Abulafia, Dmitry Yegorov, and Erez Ben-Yosef. 2020. "Firing up the furnace: New insights on metallurgical practices in the Chalcolithic Southern Levant from a recently discovered copper-smelting workshop at Horvat Beter (Israel)." Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 33. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102578.
Algaze, Guillermo. 1993. "Expansionary Dynamics of Some Early Pristine States." American Anthropologist 95 (2): 304-333.
Amiran, Ruth, and Miriam Tadmor. 1980. "A female cult statuette from Chalcolithic Beer-Sheva." Israel exploration Journal 30: 137-139.
Anđelković, Branislav. 2007. "Parameters of Statehood in Predynastic Egypt." In Egypt at its Origins 2, edited by Beatrix Midant-Reynes and Yann Tristant, 1037-1054. Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters.
Bar-Adon, Pessah. 1980. The Cave of the Treasure. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.
Bar-Yosef Mayer, Daniella. 2002. The Shell Pendants. In Kissufim Road. A Chalcolithic Morturary Site, edited by Y. Goren and P. Fabian. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority.
Bar, Shay, and Haim Winter. 2010. "Canaanean Flint Blades in Chalcolithic Context and the Possible Onset of the Transition to the Early Bronze Age: A Case Study from Fazael 2." Tel Aviv: 33-47. https://doi.org/10.1179/033443510x12632070179423.
Barraud, Cécile. 2015. "Kinship, equality, and hierarchy. Sex distinction and values in comparative perspective." HAU: Journal of Ethnographic Theory 5 (1): 221-250. https://doi.org/10.14318/hau5.1.011.
Boness, Doron, Na'ama Scheftelowitz, Peter Fabian, Isaac Gilead, and Yuval Goren. 2016. "Petrographic Study of the Pottery Assemblages from Ḥorvat Qarqar South, a GhassulianChalcolithic Cemetery in the Southern Levant." Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research Supplement 375: 185-213. https://doi.org/10.5615/bullamerschoorie.375.0185.
Braun, Eliot. 2013. "The Late Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age I Transition in the Southern Levant: Determining Continuity and Discontinuity or “Mind the Gap”." Paléorient 39 (1): 15-22. https://doi.org/10.3406/paleo.2013.5484.
Brück, Joanna. 1999. "Ritual and Rationality: Some Problems of Interpretation in European Archaeology." European Journal of Archaeology 2: 313-344. https://doi.org/10.1179/eja.1999.2.3.313.
Bryant, Clifton D., and Denis L. Peck. 2009. Second burial. In Encyclopedia of death and the human experience, edited by Clifton D. Bryant and Denis L. Peck. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Burton, Margie, and Thomas E. Levy. 2001. "The Chalcolithic radiocarbon record and its use in the southern Levantine archaeology." Radiocarbon 43: 1223-1246. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033822200038510.
Chapman, Robert. 2003. Archaeologies of Complexity. London and New York: Routledge.
Chénier, Ani. 2009. "Bones, people and communities: Tensions between individual and corporate identities in secondary burial ritual." Nexus: The Canadian Student Journal of Anthropology 21: 27-40. https://doi.org/10.15173/nexus.v21i1.214.
Commenge, Catherine, Thomas E. Levy, David Alon, and Eric Kansa. 2006. "Gilat's Figurines: Exploring the Social and Symbolic Dimesions of Representation." In Archaeology, Anthropology and Cult. The Sanctuary at Gilat, Israel, edited by Thomas E. Levy, 739-830. London: Equinox.
Crumley, Carol L. 1995. "Heterarchy and the Analysis of Complex Societies." In Heterarchy and the Analysis of Complex Societies, edited by Robert M. Ehrenreich, Carol L. Crumley and Janet E. Levy, In Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association, 1-5. Arlington, Virginia: American Anthropological Association.
David, Nicholas, and Judy Sterner. 2012. "Smith and society: patterns of articulation in the Mandara mountains (Northeast Nigeria and Northern Cameroon)." In Métallurgie du fer et Sociétés africaines. Bilans et nouveaux paradigmes dans la recherche anthropologique et archéologique, edited by Caroline Robion-Brunner and Bruno Martinelli, In Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology, 47-60. Oxford: Archaeopress.
Dothan, Moshe. 1957. "Excavations at Meser, 1956." Israel Exploration Journal 7: 217-228.
Douglas, Marry. 1984. Purity and Danger. An Analysis of the concepts of pollution and taboo. New York: Routledge.
Drabsch, Bernadette. 2015. "The Wall Art of Teleilat Ghassul, Jordan: When, Where, Why, to Whom and by Whom?" Expression 8: 50-57.
Earle, Timothy. 1987. "Chiefdoms in Archaeological and Anthropological Perspective." Annual Review of Anthropology 16: 279-308. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.16.100187.001431.
Eldar, Iris, and Ya'akov Baumgarten. 1985. "Neve Noy, a Chalcolithic site of the Beer Sheba culture." Biblical Archaeologist 48: 134-139. https://doi.org/10.2307/3209928.
Epstein, Claire. 1985. "Laden Animal Figurines from the Chalcolithic Period in Palestine." Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 258: 53-62. https://doi.org/10.2307/1356898.
Fabian, Peter, Na'ama Scheftelowitz, and Isaac Gilead. 2015. "Horvat Qarqar South: Report on a Chalcolithic Cemetery near Qiryat Gat, Israel." Israel Exploration Journal 65 (1): 1-30. https://doi.org/10.69704/jhaesi.116.2004.1982.
Frazer, James G. 2009. The Golden Bough. A Study of Magic and Religion. Electronic Book ed.: The Floating Press.
Gal, Zvi, Dina Shalem, and Howard Smithline. 2011. "The Peqi‘in Cave: A Chalcolithic Cemetery in Upper Galilee, Israel." Near Eastern Archaeology 74 (4): 196-206. https://doi.org/10.5615/neareastarch.74.4.0196.
Gal, Zvi, Howard Smithline, and Dina Shalem. 1997. "A Chalcolithic burial cave in Peqi'in, Upper Galilee." Israel Exploration Journal 47: 145-154.
Gilead, Isaac. 1988a. "The Chalcolithic period in the Levant." Journal of World Prehistory 2 (4): 397-443. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00976197.
Gilead, Isaac. 1988b. "Shiqmim and the Chalcolithic period in southern Israel." Mitekufat Haeven - Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 21: 145*-151*.
Gilead, Isaac. 1994. "The history of the Chalcolithic settlement in the Nahal Beer Sheva area: the radiocarbon aspect." Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 296: 1-13. https://doi.org/10.2307/1357176.
Gilead, Isaac. 2002. "Religio-magic behavior in the Chalcolithic period of Palestine." In Studies in Archaeology and Related Disciplines, Aaron Kempinski Memorial Volume, edited by Shmuel Ahituv and Eliezer D. Oren, In Beer Sheva, 103-128. Beer Sheva: Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Press.
Gilead, Isaac. 2009. "The Neolithic-Chalcolithic Transition in the Southern Levant: Late Sixth-Fifth Millennium Culture History." In Transitions in Prehistory: Essays in Honor of Ofer Bar-Yosef, edited by John J. Shea and Daniel E. Lieberman, 339-359. Oxford: Oxbow Books for the American Schools of Prehistoric Research.
Gilead, Isaac. 2011. "Chalcolithic culture history: the Ghassulian and other entities in the southern Levant." In Culture, Chronology and the Chalcolithic. Theory and Transition, edited by Jamie L. Lovell and Yorke M Rowan, In Levant Supplementary Series, 12-24. Oxford and Oakville: The Council for British Research in the Levant and Oxbow Books.
Gilead, Isaac, and Мilena Gošić. 2014. "Fifty Years Later: a Critical Review of Context, Chronology and Anthropology of the Cave of the Hoard in Nahal Mishmar." Mitekufat Haeven - Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 44: 226-239.
Gilead, Isaac, Steven Rosen, and Peter Fabian. 1992. "New archaeo-metallurgical evidence for the beginning of metallurgy in the southern Levant. Excavations at Tell Abu Matar Beersheba (Israel) 1990/1991." Institute for Archaeo-Metallurgical Studies 18: 11-14.
Golden, Jonathan M. 2001. "Recent Discoveries Concerning Chalcolithic Metallurgy at Shiqmim, Israel." Journal of Archaeological Science 28 (9): 951-963. https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.2000.0626.
Golden, Jonathan M. 2009a. "New Light on the Development of Chalcolithic Metal Technology in the Southern Levant." Journal of World Prehistory 22 (3): 283-300. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10963-009-9022-6.
Golden, Jonathan M. 2009b. Dawn of the Metal Age. Technology and Society during the Levantine Chalcolithic. London and Oakville: Equinox.
Gopher, Avi, and Tsvika Tsuk. 1996. The Nahal Qanah Cave, Earliest Gold in the Southern Levant. Vol. 12Monographs Series of the Institute of Archaeology. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University.
Gophna, Ram, and Sam Lifshitz. 1980. "A Chalcolithic burial cave at Palmahim." 'Atiqot 14: 1-8.
Goren, Yuval. 1995. "Shrines and Ceramics in Chalcolithic Israel: the view through the petrographic microscope." Archaeometry 37: 287-305. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.1995.tb00744.x.
Goren, Yuval, Yotam Ascher, Shay Bar, Magda Batiashvili, Hagai Cohen-Klonymus, Yarden Faigelson, Sonia Pinsky, Dani Rosenberg, and Sariel Shalev. 2025. "An integrative study of the Chalcolithic copper industry in the southern Levant." 16th Conference of the Forum for the Research of the Chalcolithic Period "The Internal Chronology of the Chalcolithic Period (Ghassulian Culture)" Conference in Memory of Prof. Isaac (Itzik) Gilead, Ben-Gurion University in the Negev, Beersheba, Israel, 26 February 2025.
Goren, Yuval, and Peter Fabian. 2002. Kissufim Road. A Chalcolithic Mortuary Site Edited by Israel Antiquities Authority. Vol. 16.Israel Antiquities Authority Reports. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority.
Gorzalczany, Amir, Rona Winter-Livneh, Angelina Dagot, and Vadim Shustin. 2012. Palmahim (North). Preliminary Report. Excavations and Surveys in Israel 124. Accessed 10 January 2013.
Gošić, Milena. 2015. "Skeuomorphism, Boundary Objects and Socialization of the Chalcolithic Metallurgy in the Southern Levant." Issues in Ethnology and Anthropology 10 (3): 717-740. https://doi.org/10.21301/EAP.v10i3.8.
Gošić, Milena. 2016. "Temples in the Ghassulian Culture: Terminology and Social Implications." Issues in Ethnology and Anthropology 11 (3): 869-893. https://doi.org/10.21301/EAP.V11I3.11.
Gošić, Мilena, and Isaac Gilead. 2015. "Casting the Sacred - Chalcolithic Metallurgy and Ritual in the Southern Levant." In Defining the Sacred: Approaches to the Archaeology of Religion in the Near East, edited by Nicola Laneri, 161-175. Oxford: Oxbow.
Hamilton, Malcom B. 2001. The Sociology of Religion. Theoretical and Comparative Perspectives. Second ed. London and New York: Routledge.
Henry, Donald O. 1989. From foraging to agriculture: the Levant at the end of the Ice Age. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Ilan, David, and Yorke M Rowan. 2012. "Deconstructing and Recomposing the Narrative of Spiritual Life in the Chalcolithic of the Southern Levant (4500-3600 B.C.E.)." Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 21: 89–113. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1551-8248.2012.01039.x.
Ilani, Shimon, and Amnon Rosenfeld. 1994. "Ore Source of Arsenic Copper Tools from Israel during Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age." Terra Nova 6: 177-179. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3121.1994.tb00651.x.
Joffe, Alexandar, and J. P. Dessel. 1995. "Redefining chronology and terminology for the Chalcolithic of the southern Levant." Current Anthropology 36 (3): 507-518. https://doi.org/10.1086/204388.
Key, C. A. 1980. "The trace-element composition of the copper and copper alloy artifacts of the Nahal Mishmar hoars." In The Cave of the Treasures, by Pessah Bar-Adon, 238-243. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.
Kovacevich, Brigitte, and Michael G. Callaghan. 2013. "Introduction: Inalienability, Value, and the Construction of Social Difference." Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 23 (1): 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1111/apaa.12012.
Kristiansen, Kristian. 1991. ""Chiefdoms, States, and Systems of Social Evolution"." In Chiefdoms: Power, Economy, and Ideology, edited by Timothy K. Earle, 16-43. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Levy, Thomas E. 1986a. "The Chalcolithic period." Biblical Archaeologist 49: 82-108.
Levy, Thomas E. 1986b. "Social Archaeology and the Chalcolithic Period: Explaining Social Organizational Change during the 4th Millennium in Israel." Michmanim 3: 5-20.
Levy, Thomas E. 1995. "Cult, metallurgy and ranked societies - the Chalcolithic period (ca. 4500-3500 BCE)." In The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land, edited by Thomas E. Levy, 226-245. London: Leicester University Press.
Levy, Thomas E., ed. 2006. Archaeology, Anthropology and Cult, the Sanctuary at Gilat, Israel. London: Equinox.
Levy, Thomas E., and David Alon. 1985. "Shiqmim: a Chalcolithic village and mortuary centre in the northern Negev." Paléorient 11: 71-83. https://doi.org/10.3406/paleo.1985.4362.
Levy, Thomas E., and David Alon. 1987. "Excavations in Shiqmim Cemetery 3: Final Report on the 1982 Season." In Shiqmim I. Studies Concerning Chalcolithic Societies in the Northern Negev Desert, Israel (1982-1984), edited by Thomas E. Levy, In Bar International Series, 333-355. Oxford: B.A.R.
Levy, Thomas E., David Alon, Paul Goldberg, Caroline Grigson, Patricia Smith, Jane Buikstra, Augustine F.-C. Holl, Yorke M Rowan, and Pamela Sabari. 1994. "Protohistoric investigations at the Shiqmim Chalcolithic village and cemetery: interim report on the 1988 season." In Preliminary Excavations Reports Sardis, Paphos, Caesarea Maritima, Shiqmim, Ain Ghazal, edited by William G. Dever, 87-106. American Schools of Oriental Research.
Levy, Thomas E., and Jonathan M. Golden. 1996. "Syncretistic and Mnemonic Dimensions of Chalcolithic Art: A New Human Figurine from
Shiqmim." Biblical Archaeologist 59 (3): 150-159. https://doi.org/10.2307/3210546.
Levy, Thomas E., Yorke M. Rowan, James D. Anderson, Morag M. Kersel, Margie M. Burton, and Anthony T. Tamberino. 2023. "The Settlement Center: Phase II Excavations in the Shiqmim Village—Stratigraphy, Architecture, and Social Change." In Shiqmim II. The phase II excavations at a Chalcolithic settlement center in the northern Negev desert, Israel (1987 - 1993), edited by Thomas E. Levy, Yorke M. Rowan and Margie M. Burton, In BAR International Series, 45-163. Oxford: BAR Publishing.
Maisels, Charles K. 2001. Early Civilizations of the Old World. The Formative Histories of Egypt, the Levant, Mesopotamia, India and China. London and New York: Routledge.
Malinowski, Bronislav. 1948. Magic, Science and Religion and Other Essays. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press.
Manclossi, Francesca, and Steven A. Rosen. 2022. Flint trade in the protohistoric Levant: The complexities and implications of tabular scraper exchange in the Levantine protohistoric periods. New York: Routledge.
Merhav, Rivka. 1993. "Scepters of the divine from the Cave of the Treasure at Nahal Mishmar." In Studies in the archaeology and history of ancient Israel in honour of Moshe Dothan, edited by Michael Heltzer, Arthur Segal and Daniel Kaufman, 21-42. Haifa: Haifa University Press.
Milevski, Ianir. 2002. "A new fertility figurine and new animal motifs from the Chalcolithic in the southern Levant: finds from cave K-1 at Quleh, Israel." Paléorient 28: 133-141. https://doi.org/10.3406/paleo.2002.4751.
Milevski, Ianir, Ronit Lupu, and Anat Cohen Weinberger. 2023. Excavations at Quleh and Mazor (West). Burial Practices and Iconography in Southern Levantine Chalcolithic Cemeteries. Vol. 4Archaeology of Egypt, Sudan and the Levant. Vienna: Austrian Academy of Sciences.
Mills, Barbara J. 2004. "The Establishment and Defeat of Hierarchy: Inalienable Possessions and the History of Collective Prestige Structures in the Pueblo Southwest." American Anthropologist 106 (2): 238–251. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.2004.106.2.238.
Namdar, Dvory, Irina Segal, Yuval Goren, and Shalev Shalev. 2004. "Chalcolithic Copper Artifacts." In Giv’at ha-Oranim. A Chalcolithic Site, edited by N. Scheftelowitz and R. Oren, 70-83. Tel Aviv: Emery and Claire Yass Publications in Archaeology of the Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University.
Nativ, Assaf, and Avi Gopher. 2011. "The Cemetery as a Symbol: a Reconsideration of Chalcolithic Burial Caves in the Southern Levant." Cambridge Archaeological Journal 21 (2): 229-245. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959774311000254.
Perrot, Jean. 1955. "The excavations at Tell Abu Matar near Beersheba." Israel Exploration Journal 5: 17-40, 73-84, 167-189.
Perrot, Jean. 1956. "Beersheba (Safadi)." Revue Biblique 63: 82-86.
Perrot, Jean. 1959. "Statuettes en ivoire et autres objets en ivoire et en os provenant des gisements préhistoriques de la région de Béershéba." Syria 36: 8-19. https://doi.org/10.3406/syria.1959.5448.
Perrot, Jean. 1964. "Les ivoires de la 7e campagne a Safadi près de Beershéva." Eretz-Israel 7: 92*-93*.
Perrot, Jean. 1984. "Structures d'habitat, mode de la vie et environment: Les villages souterrains des pasteurs de Beershéva dans le Sud d'Israël, au IVe millénaire avant l'ère chrétienne." Paléorient 10: 75-92. https://doi.org/10.3406/paleo.1984.4351.
Perrot, Jean. 2006. "Autour des ivoires de Beersheba." Syria 83: 159-165. https://doi.org/10.4000/syria.228.
Perrot, Jean, and Daniel Ladiray. 1980. Tombes à Ossuaries de la Région Côtiere Palestinienne au IVe Millénaire Avant l'ère Chrétiene. Paris: Association Paléorient.
Price, T. Douglas. 1995. "Social inequality at the origins of agriculture." In Foundations of Social Inequality, edited by T. Douglas Price, 129-151. New York: Plenum Press.
Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred R. , ed. 1952. Structure and Function in Primitive Society. Essays and Addresses. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press.
Rappaport, Roy A. 1999. Ritual and Religion in the Making of Humanity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Renfrew, Colin. 1974. "Beyond a Subsistence Economy: The Evolution of Social Organization in Prehistoric Europe." In Reconstructing Complex Societies, edited by Charlotte B. Moore, In Supplement to the American Schools of Oriental Research, 69-85. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rogers, Rhea J. 1995. "Tribes as Heterarchy: A Case Study from the Prehistoric Southeastern United States." In Heterarchy and the Analysis of Complex Societies, edited by Robert M. Ehrenreich, Carol L. Crumley and Janet E. Levy, In Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association, 7-16. Arlington, Virginia: American Anthropological Association.
Rose, Thomas, Shay Bar, Yotam Asscher, and Yuval Goren. 2023. "Identification of Fazael 2 (4000–3900 BCE) as first lost wax casting workshop in the Chalcolithic Southern Levant." Heritage Science 11: 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-023-01029-9.
Rosenberg, Danny, Eli Buchman, Sariel Shalev, and Shay Bar. 2020. "A large copper artefacts assemblage of Fazael, Jordan Valley: new evidence of Late Chalcolithic copper metallurgy in the southern Levant." Documenta Praehistorica 47: 246-261. https://doi.org/10.4312/dp.47.14.
Rosenberg, Danny, and Rivka Chasan. 2024. "Ivories in the Late Chalcolithic Period and Their Significance for Understanding Contacts Between Egypt and the Southern Levant." Journal of World Prehistory 37: 221–256. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10963-024-09187-9.
Rothenberg, Benno. 1991. "The Ghassulian-Beersheva Chalcolithic Enigma." Institute for Archaeo-Metallurgical Studies 17: 6-7.
Rowan, Yorke M, Thomas E. Levy, David Alon, and Yuval Goren. 2006. "Gilat's Ground Stone Assemblage: Stone Fenestrated Stands, Bowls, Palettes and Related Artifacts." In Archaeology, Anthropology and Cult. The Sanctuary at Gilat, Israel, edited by Thomas E. Levy, 575-684. London: Equinox.
Rowan, Yorke M., and Jonathan M. Golden. 2009. The Chalcolithic Period of the Southern Levant: A Synthetic Review. Journal of World Prehistory 22 (1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10963-009-9016-4.
Rowan, Yorke M., and David Ilan. 2007. "The Meaning of Ritual Diversity in the Chalcolithic of the Southern Levant." In Cult in Context. Reconsidering Ritual in Archaeology, edited by David A. Barrowclough and Caroline Malone, 249-256. Oxford: Oxbow Books.
Scheftelowitz, Na'ama, and Ronit Oren. 2004. Giv`at Ha-Oranim. A Chalcolithic Site. Vol. 1.Salvage Excavations Report. Tel Aviv: Emery and Claire Yass Publications in Archaeology of the Institute of Archaeology.
Sebbane, Michael. 2023. "Hematite Mace-Heads: A Specialized Craft Unique to the Late Chalcolithic Period." 'Atiqot 111: 23-62. https://doi.org/10.70967/2948-040X.1061.
Shalem, Dina. 2008. "Iconography on Ossuaries and Burial Jars from the Late Chalcolithic Period in Israel in the Context of the Ancient Near East." Ph.D dissertation, University of Haifa.
Shalev, Sariel. 1996. "Metallurgical and Metalographic Studies. Copper objects." In The Nahal Qanah Cave. Earliest Gold in the Southern Levant, edited by Avi Gopher and Tsvika Tsuk. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University Press.
Shalev, Sariel, and Peter J. Northover. 1987. "Chalcolithic metalworking from Shiqmim." In Shiqmim I, Studies Concerning Chalcolithic Societies in the Northern Negev Desert, Israel (1982-1984), edited by Thomas E. Levy, In BAR International Series 359(i), 357-371. Oxford: B.A.R.
Shochat, Harel, Avishay Levi-Hevroni, Martin D. Pasternak, Pablo Betzer, Daniel Varga, Yael Abadi-Reiss, Olga Negnevitsky, Ilan Naor, Liora Kolska Horwitz, and Ianir Milevski. in press. "Researching Chalcolithic ivories from the southern Levant: Craft items for ritual, prestige and exchange." `Atiqot 118.
Shugar, Aaron N. 2001. "Chalcolithic Metallurgy in the Southern Levant: Recent Research in Ore Selection and Alloying." In The Proceedings of the Near & Middle Eastern Civilizations Graduate Students' Association Annual Symposia 1998-2000, 77-96. Benben Publications.
Shugar, Aaron N. 2003. "Reconstructing the Chalcolithic Metallurgical Process at Abu Matar, Israel." In Archaeometallurgy in Europe Conference, 449-458. Milan: Associazione Italiana di Metallurgia.
Tadmor, Miriam, Dan Kedem, Friedrich Begemann, Andreas Hauptmann, Ernst Pernicka, and Sigrid Schmitt-Strecker. 1995. "The Nahal Mishmar Hoard from the Judean Desert: Technology, Composition, and Provenance." 'Atiqot 27: 96-148. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781575065472-042.
Titiev, Mischa. 1960. "A Fresh Approach to the Problem of Magic and Religion." Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 16 (3): 292-298. https://doi.org/10.1086/soutjanth.16.3.3629032.
Tylor, Edward B. 1913. Primitive culture. 5th ed. London: Murray.
van den Brink, Edvin C. M. , and R. Gophna. 2005. Shoham (North). Late Chalcolithic Burial Caves in the Lod Valley, Israel. Vol. 27.Israel Antiquities Authority Reports. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority.
Vardi, Jacob, and Isaac Gilead. 2013. "Chalcolithic – Early Bronze Age I Transition in the Southern Levant: The Lithic perspective." Paléorient 39 (1): 111-123. https://doi.org/10.3406/paleo.2013.5490.
Weiner, Annette B. 1992. Inalienable Possessions. The Paradox of Keeping-While-Giving. Berkeley, Los Angeles and Oxford: University of California Press.
Winter-Livneh, Rona, Tal Svoray, and Isaac Gilead. 2012. "Secondary burial cemeteries, visibility and land tenure: A view from the southern Levant Chalcolithic period." Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 31: 423–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2012.03.002.
Yadin, Yigal. 1976. "Note on the Violin-Shaped Figurine from Gilat." ‘Atiqot 11 (121).
Yahalom-Mack, Naama, Dafna Langgut, Omri Dvir, Ofir Tirosh, Adi Eliyahu-Behar, Yigal Erel, Boaz Langford, Amos Frumkin, Mika Ullman, and Uri Davidovich. 2015. "The Earliest Lead Object in the Levant." PLoS ONE 10 (12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0142948.
Yoffee, Norman. 1993. "Too many chiefs? (or, Safe texts for the '90s)." In Archaeological theory: who sets the agenda?, edited by Norman Yoffee and Andrew Sherratt, 60-78. Cambridge: Cambidge University Press.
Ziffer, Irit. 2007. "A Note on the Nahal Mishmar “Crowns”." In Ancient Near Eastern Art in Context. Studies in Honor of Irene J. Winter by Her Students, edited by Jack Cheng and Marian H. Feldman, 47-67. Boston and Leiden: Brill.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
ERIH PLUS - European Reference Index for the Humanities
World Cat
AnthroSerbia
